Trust in Automation (TiA): Simulation Model, and Empirical Findings in Supervisory Control of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS)

Over the past three decades, Trust in Automation (TiA) has been the subject of extensive research. However, a large portion of the research takes a “static” approach to modeling trust and views trust as a linear unidirectional phenomenon. This view fails to recognize that trust is a dynamic construct that changes over time as an outcome of prolonged interaction with automation. The present study aims to address this gap and explore the nonlinear dynamic nature of trust by developing a simulation model of Trust in Automation (TiA) that can demonstrate trust evolution, deterioration, and recovery within the context of supervisory control of Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS). Employing System Dynamics (SD) approach, the model captures trust’s non-linear and reciprocal nature through dynamic feedback loops, producing behavioral patterns consistent with empirical observations of trust. The simulation results showcase the crucial role of initial trust conditions and the alignment of expectations with system performance in fostering trust and effective automation use. The study also explores the timing of system malfunctions, revealing that early faults have a greater negative impact on trust compared to later faults of the same magnitude. We tested a segment of the proposed model in an experimental study involving 30 human participants to investigate the effects of automation malfunctions on operators’ trust and behavioral responses during the supervisory control of MASS. Results not only validated the proposed model but demonstrated a significant decline in perceived reliability and trust in automation as well as the monitoring strategy after the automation malfunction.