A dual antibacterial action of soft quaternary ammonium compounds: bacteriostatic effects, membrane integrity, and reduced in vitro and in vivo toxicity

cytotoxicity studies confirmed significantly lower toxicity compared to CPC. By addressing limitations associated with conventional QACs, including toxicity, resistance, and environmental persistence, these soft QACs provide a promising foundation for next-generation antimicrobials. This work advances the understanding of QAC mechanisms while paving the way for safer, eco-friendly applications in healthcare, agriculture, and industrial settings.