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Research on toxicity, removal, and degradation of per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) has increased tremendously in the number of publications in recent years. The aim of this review was to summarize the source, exposure route, and potential toxicological effects of PFAS to humans. Relevant articles published between 2010 and 2022 were selected from PubMed and Scopus on the PFAS occurrence, exposure route, and potential toxicity effects on human health. This review discusses the potential exposure pathways to PFAS across various life stages, including contaminated food, drinking water, breastfeeding, indoor or outdoor air, and PFAS-containing consumer products. Furthermore, this paper highlights the possible associations between PFAS exposure and various health effects, and the mechanisms underlying these toxicological effects, including immune dysregulation and respiratory impacts, endocrine system disruptions (thyroid and pancreatic functions), lipid and metabolic dysregulation, systemic toxicities affecting the liver, cardiovascular system, and kidneys, as well as adverse reproductive and developmental outcomes, and the nervous system.
Yeoh et al. (2025) studied this question.