Abstract Galactic cosmic rays (GCRs), consisting predominantly of fully stripped nuclei, are significantly modulated by solar activity and represent a major radiation hazard for long-duration human space exploration. This study presents a comprehensive GCR modulation model based on a modified force-field approach, extending previous work by Z. Shen et al. to heavier nuclei. The local interstellar spectra (LIS) for elements from hydrogen to nickel are derived by fitting observations from Voyager, Payload for Antimatter Matter Exploration and Light-nuclei Astrophysics, Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer-02, Advanced Composition Explorer Cosmic Ray Isotope Spectrometer, HEAO3-C2, and others. The solar modulation potential ϕ ( E ) is described by a double power-law function with an exponential tail. Due to differences in LIS spectral shapes and mass-to-charge ratio-dependent modulation effects, protons and helium have distinct ϕ values, while heavier nuclei share the same ϕ as helium. The time-dependent parameters within the ϕ expression are determined by fitting selected GCR measurements and subsequently reconstructed using sunspot number, heliospheric current sheet tilt angle, and heliospheric magnetic field polarity, enabling the development of a predictive GCR model. The results successfully reproduce the 11 and 22 yr GCR cycles, with good agreement with observations since Solar Cycle 19 across different particle species and energies. Additionally, this study investigates long-term solar modulation over millennial timescales utilizing cosmogenic 14 C isotope records and assesses radiation dose rates relevant for deep space missions, showing good agreement with Cosmic Ray Telescope for the Effects of Radiation/D1D2 measurements. This work thus provides a new framework for predicting GCR fluxes and associated radiation exposure in deep space.
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