Tissue-engineered scaffolds, particularly composite scaffolds composed of polymers combined with ceramics, bioactive glasses, or nanomaterials, play a vital role in regenerative medicine by providing structural and biological support for tissue repair. As scaffold designs grow increasingly complex, the need for non-invasive imaging modalities capable of monitoring scaffold integration, degradation, and tissue regeneration in real-time has become critical. This review summarizes current non-invasive imaging techniques used to evaluate tissue-engineered constructs, including optical methods such as near-infrared fluorescence imaging (NIR), optical coherence tomography (OCT), and photoacoustic imaging (PAI); magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); X-ray-based approaches like computed tomography (CT); and ultrasound-based modalities. It discusses the unique advantages and limitations of each modality. Finally, the review identifies major challenges—including limited imaging depth, resolution trade-offs, and regulatory hurdles—and proposes future directions to enhance translational readiness and clinical adoption of imaging-guided tissue engineering (TE). Emerging prospects such as multimodal platforms and artificial intelligence (AI) assisted image analysis hold promise for improving precision, scalability, and clinical relevance in scaffold monitoring.
Farjaminejad et al. (2025) studied this question.