Science education in the age of misinformation

misinformation. Scientists frequently appear in the media to provide the public with an accessible, although sometimes simplified, overview of scientific progress in different fields. This democratization of information facilitated the widespread and rapid sharing of intentional and unintentional misinformation, thus posing a significant threat to science, society, and democracy (Lewandowsky et al., 2017;Petersen et al., 2019;Vosoughi et al., 2018).Inoculation theory is a leading theory for building resistance against pseudoscience and misinformation, successfully applied in various contexts, including public awareness initiatives, social media campaigns, and classroom activities where different inoculation methods can be combined (Compton et al., 2021;Trecek-King Vosoughi et al., 2018). As ideas compete for public attention, sensationalized and oversimplified news dominates credible, complex scientific information. Journalists often report scientific research inaccurately, overstating progress, magnifying risks, or portraying science as a series of 'success stories' (Einsiedel, 1992;McClune et al., 2012). As a result, science is often framed as a string of dramatic breakthroughs rather than a continuous process of discovery, misleading the public's perception of the scientific process.Repeated exposure to misinformation can enhance its perceived credibility, even when debunking efforts are successful (Pennycook et al., 2018;Swire et al., 2017). Once accepted, correcting misinformation becomes a significant challenge, often leading to major societal costs as individuals often continue to rely on the misinformation they encounter to make critical decisions (Chan et al., 2017;Swire et al., 2017). The continued influence effect allows misinformation to persist, which can weaken the effectiveness of debunking strategies and sabotage prebunking efforts (Lewandowsky et al., 2012;Vosoughi et al., 2018). 'Inoculation' is a proactive alternative to these threats. Likened to a 'jiu-jitsu' defense against persuasion, where an opponent's force is redirected against them, inoculation exposes students to persuasion tactics in advance, enabling them to recognize and resist misinformation (Hornsey Kucharski, 2016). In medicine, exposure to a weakened pathogen stimulates the production of antibodies, offering protection against possible future infections. Similarly, inoculation theory suggests that exposing individuals to a weak argument, followed by a refutation, can build resistance by developing 'mental antibodies' against future persuasion techniques (McGuire Schmid Lewandowsky et al., 2016;Zerback et al., 2020). However, repeated exposure to misinformation tactics can help sustain resistance to deception. Another significant challenge is expanding cognitive inoculation to achieve widespread 'herd immunity' against misinformation (Lewandowsky et al., 2016). Crucially, just as in medical herd immunity, not everyone must be inoculated for the population as a whole to benefit; those who are resistant help shield those who remain vulnerable (Lewandowsky et al., 2016). If a sufficient number of people develop resistance, the spread of misinformation is significantly reduced.Scientific media literacy refers to the ability to apply knowledge of science and media to select, understand, evaluate, and respond to various representations of science across news outlets, websites, novels, documentaries, television, advertisements, films, music, and other domains (Reid & Norris, 2016). Scientific media literacy supports traditional science education by requiring an understanding of media and knowledge of scientific epistemology and content. Scientific media literacy encompasses three key areas of media education: (1) understanding the broad context of media, (2) developing the skills to evaluate media content, and (3) creating media (Reid & Norris, 2016). Formal and informal science education often focus on the first two areas. However, due to curriculum constraints, the third area is rarely considered.• connects school science to everyday life.• depends on current and relevant science news.• increases student interest in science.• encourages debate and discussion.• fosters skills for lifelong learning.• There is limited instructional time to focus on scientific media literacy skills.• The language is complex and scientific articles are too detailed.• Curriculum requirements impose constraints.• Selecting and preparing scientific articles for instruction or assessment is timeconsuming and requires significant effort.Scientific media literacy helps students recognize that while the internet provides access to a diverse range of scientific resources, it also increases exposure to scientific misinformation.Students may overestimate the credibility of scientific claims, confuse causation with correlation, or struggle to identify reliable evidence and reasonable conclusions. Media representations of science frequently lack detailed methodological explanations, present findings with definitive rather than cautious language, and may omit essential data. Teachers should be directly involved in driving change in science education, as they are central to the success of any educational reform. Effective reform can only occur when teachers' existing knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs are considered.Science education often results in what some call 'marginal insiders,' graduates who have learned different scientific concepts and theories but possess only a surface-level understanding of the scientific process (Osborne & Pimentel, 2023, p. 4). Content knowledge is inarguably a necessary foundation, but it is often inadequate when it comes to making sense of the complex scientific issues encountered in everyday life. For those who do not pursue careers in science, this reality makes them outsiders to the discipline, much like they would be in any profession outside their expertise. As a result, science education should shift focus to equipping students to become 'competent outsiders' who can critically assess scientific claims and determine their credibility despite not being scientists themselves. Despite it being a daunting challenge for some, it must be taught and reinforced from an early age, starting as early as second grade until it becomes second nature (Osborne & Pimentel, 2023).The framework demonstrates the parallel implementation of Inoculation Theory and scientific media literacy as complementary, mutually-reinforcing approaches. Classroom application is the crucial converging point bridging the gap between theory and practice and between formal science and the realities of public discourse through active learning and media analysis activities, ultimately producing scientifically literate citizens.Public trust in science is closely tied to understanding how scientific knowledge is tested, validated, and established within the scientific community (Sharon & A. Baram-Tsabari, 2020).Science research undergoes rigorous peer review before being accepted as reliable knowledge (Höttecke & Allchin, 2020). This process filters out unreliable information, leaving behind a Active Learning + Media AnalysisMisinformation-Resistant + Critical Thinkers body of knowledge continuously refined despite the minor flaws in the system. Students struggle to acquire this understanding outside of formal education. Moreover, it is unreasonable to expect science education to include all the domain-specific knowledge students will need throughout their lives. Many urgent and emerging global scientific issues, such as those that arose during the COVID-19 pandemic, require expertise beyond what is typically taught in school science curricula, such as understanding the mode of transmission of viruses, their reproduction, and their impact on the body. Additionally, the field of science is constantly evolving. Many of today's discoveries did not exist a decade ago. In twenty years, entirely new fields of knowledge will likely emerge that formal education has not yet included in its curricula. Given this reality, what kind of knowledge remains universally important? Determining whether a scientific claim is trustworthy and understanding how science operates as a social system should be core components of science education at all levels, "from the cradle to the grave," ensuring that students can critically engage with scientific information in an ever-changing world (Osborne & Pimentel, 2023, p. 12).While scientific findings are primarily disseminated through peer-reviewed journals, the general public largely learns about science through media communication, which often presents 'science-in-the-making' rather than the fully established knowledge presented in school science textbooks (Kolstø, 2001). Therefore, engaging students with news reports in the classroom helps bridge the gap between formal science education and real-world science. Wellington (1991) was among the first to suggest using news reports in science classrooms, arguing that formal education should prepare students to critically analyze science-related media content beyond their schooling years. Incorporating science news into classrooms aligns closely with scientific literacy goals and helps make "the school walls (more) permeable" for students to see science as an evolving field rather than a static body of facts (McClune et al., 2012, p. 17).A scientifically literate student understands scientific methods and the inherent interconnectedness between science, the environment, technology, politics, business, and society.Therefore, scientific media literacy has considerable implications for teaching and assessment.The ability to critically evaluate media reports of scientific research reflects proficiency across these areas, making news articles a valuable tool for instruction and assessment. Teachers can use current events to stimulate an interest in science, encourage students to report on science news through assignments and classroom discussions, appreciate the significant role of science in society, and accept that science is in a state of continuous change. This type of healthy skepticism balances being open to new perspectives and questioning those that lack credible evidence. Students learn to apply evidence-based arguments to issues involving extraordinary claims, distinguishing between scientifically valid assertions and those that do not hold up under scrutiny.Implementing these goals, however, presents several challenges that must be addressed.Teachers' resistance to change and their comfort with traditional methods must be acknowledged to encourage a shift toward teaching scientific media literacy. Some consider media literacy part of civic education, while others view it as an additional burden that cannot be realistically managed (Jenkins, 1996). This is not a critique of teachers' professionalism but rather an acknowledgment of the complexity of the task (Monk & Dillon, 2000). Scientific media literacy may also require a significant shift in teachers' familiar, tried-and-true methods. Applying new strategies that deal with complex, controversial issues that lack clear-cut or universally agreed-upon solutions is challenging. questions, competing hypotheses, ongoing debates, and conflicting models. These aspects of science may also feel unfamiliar for students, educators, and parents, as they were not emphasized in their education. This dynamic nature of science can be confusing and perceived as political manipulation, as experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic.The decoupling of formal and informal science education necessitates a significant shift in focus. Schools have a pivotal role in the development of an informed citizenry capable of engaging with science and technology throughout their lives, regardless of whether students pursue careers in the field. Even though most people's everyday lives do not require extensive scientific knowledge, a scientifically literate public is essential for the functioning of a democratic society. A profound shift in the goals of science education is necessary to prepare students for the misinformation era.The situation is critical. It is easy to be discouraged by the prevalence of misinformation, and pretending these issues can be easily addressed within the curriculum would be misleading.While offering significant benefits to society, science can only fulfill its potential if individuals can access and identify trustworthy scientific information. The science that matters to individuals, whether for personal reasons or public decision-making, is often new, complex, and sometimes incomplete. When credible scientific research is dismissed for the wrong reasons, science and public trust in it are at risk.