August 15, 2025Open Access

Enteropathogenic Bacteria in Water Sources Associated with Faecal Waste from Open Defecation and Animals in Rural Communities of Vhembe District, South Africa

BMBarbara MoganeTshwane University of Technology MMMaggy Ndombo Benteke MombaUniversity of Mbandaka

Key Points

S. flexneri showed high detection rates in water samples, ranging from 5–100%, indicating serious contamination risks.
Water samples tested positive for S. Typhimurium at rates between 19% and 60%, highlighting prevalent enteropathogenic bacteria.
Regression analysis demonstrated strong associations between faecal waste and water contamination during the wet season for both S. flexneri and S. Typhimurium.
These findings underscore the urgent need for improved sanitation measures in rural communities to mitigate water contamination risks.

Abstract

The lack of improved sanitation in rural areas of developing countries, including South Africa, exacerbates open defecation, leading to the significant contamination of water sources by human and animal waste. This study aimed to establish the association of Campylobacter jejuni, Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium, Shigella flexneri, and Yersinia enterocolitica in open defecation sites and animal waste with the contamination of water sources in Vhembe District, South Africa. A total of 1032 water samples and 111 faecal samples from the Collins Chabane and Thulamela municipalities were analysed using qPCR. Regression models were used to assess associations, with S. Typhimurium (19–60%) and S. flexneri (11–44%) being the most prevalent bacteria in faecal matter and water, showing detection rates of 4–100% and 5–100%, respectively. Strong associations were found during the wet season between faecal waste and water contamination for S. flexneri (R2 = 0.7, p = 0.005) and S. Typhimurium (R2 = 0.619, p = 0.091). Urgent measures are needed to address the contamination of rural water sources due to open defecation and livestock waste.

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