Multidimensionality of stress: risk factors and protective factors for health outcomes

In research literature stress is characterized as a multidimensional phenomenon that comprises antecedents of stress, its cognitive appraisal, emotional and physiological consequences, as well as coping strategies. Stress response is an ontologically ancient adaptation that has been inextricably connected to all biological life. Stress response is instrumental to help the organism react to the signals of danger more efficiently and adapt to environmental changes that otherwise threaten its integrity, health, or life. Stress response is considered adaptive (i.e. helpful) as it allows an organism to mobilize in order to address the stressor and then to recover its balance once the mobilization necessary to address the stressful situation has taken place. However, when the stressor is prolonged, traumatic, or chronic, the stress exposure can result in pathological changes in human physiology or mental health. Different stressors affects different individuals and situations differently, which should be taken into consideration when developing stress measures as different stressors can have dissimilar potential to leave their mark on human physiology or immunity. This work reviews stressors typologies based on stress duration, intensity and character. Theoretical models that deal with stress and stress dynamics have undergone some changes; metrics of stress have been also subject to evolutionary changes, recently privileging those instruments that can efficiently combine the effects of acute and chronic stress. An important aspect of understanding the effects of stress on health is the distinction between the effects of the objective stress exposure and that of perceived, subjective stress on health outcomes, as well as a good grasp of the protective resources of resilience to stress. This article sheds light on the protective factors that boost resilience — social relationships, optimistic disposition, forgiveness, and reacting to failure with self-compassion — from the point of view of the theoretical explanations (i.e. mechanisms) and on the basis of empirical data.