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September 19, 2025Open Access

Advancing Zinc–Manganese Oxide Batteries: Mechanistic Insights, Anode Engineering, and Cathode Regulation

CZChuang ZhaoCentre National de la Recherche Scientifique YZYiheng ZhouWuhan University of Technology YLYudong LiuAnhui Agricultural University

Key Points

Rechargeable zinc manganese oxide batteries show great potential for energy storage with a theoretical capacity of ≈308 mAh·g−1, but face challenges.
Anode issues like dendrite growth and ineffective ion transport pathways must be addressed to enhance battery performance and longevity.
Optimizing MnO2 cathodes through metal ion doping and structural improvements can substantially increase the overall efficiency of the batteries.
This review provides a solid theoretical framework for future innovations in both research and practical applications of zinc manganese oxide batteries.

Abstract

Rechargeable aqueous Zn-MnO2 batteries are positioned as a highly promising candidate for next-generation energy storage, owing to their compelling combination of economic viability, inherent safety, exceptional capacity (with a theoretical value of ≈308 mAh·g−1), and eco-sustainability. However, this system still faces multiple critical challenges that hinder its practical application, primarily including the ambiguous energy storage reaction mechanism (e.g., unresolved debates on core issues such as ion transport pathways and phase transition kinetics), dendrite growth and side reactions (e.g., the hydrogen evolution reaction and corrosion reaction) on the metallic Zn anode, inadequate intrinsic electrical conductivity of MnO2 cathodes (≈10−5 S·cm−1), active material dissolution, and structural collapse. This review begins by systematically summarizing the prevailing theoretical models that describe the energy storage reactions in Zn-Mn batteries, categorizing them into the Zn2+ insertion/extraction model, the conversion reaction involving MnOx dissolution–deposition, and the hybrid mechanism of H+/Zn2+ co-intercalation. Subsequently, we present a comprehensive discussion on Zn anode protection strategies, such as surface protective layer construction, 3D structure design, and electrolyte additive regulation. Furthermore, we focus on analyzing the performance optimization strategies for MnO2 cathodes, covering key pathways including metal ion doping (e.g., introduction of heteroions such as Al3+ and Ni2+), defect engineering (oxygen vacancy/cation vacancy regulation), structural topology optimization (layered/tunnel-type structure design), and composite modification with high-conductivity substrates (e.g., carbon nanotubes and graphene). Therefore, this review aims to establish a theoretical foundation and offer practical guidance for advancing both fundamental research and practical engineering of Zn-manganese oxide secondary batteries.

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