New Considerations of the Formation and Evolution of Chinese Texts in Ancient Japan

The development of academic thought and scientific knowledge in ancient Japan progressed in tandem with the reception of Chinese texts. Initially, this occurred through the countries of the Korean Peninsula, and later through diplomacy, study abroad, and trade with the various Chinese dynasties. The dissemination of Chinese texts in ancient Japan was initially undertaken by Buddhists tasked with interpreting Chinese translations of Buddhist scriptures, followed by the bureaucrats who administered court politics. During this process, Japanese Sinologists' transcription and collation of Chinese texts spread across all fields of study. Concurrently, the method of kundoku reading—developed by Buddhists who learned techniques from the Korean scholars—and the practice of recording it in texts took root. This practice, often accompanied by kunten—codes for translation—indicating Japanese translations, became a major characteristic of Japanese Chinese texts. The primary beneficiaries of this development were the Confucian scholars of the kiden-dō school, who rose to prominence during the Heian period. Building upon their foundation as bureaucrats well-versed in Confucian ethics and fluent in Classical Chinese, they added expertise in Chinese literature and history, enabling them to participate in court politics at a high level. The Sugawara and Ohe families were representative clans of this group. They also composed poetry and prose themselves, developing unique rhetorical techniques that ushered in a golden age of Chinese-style literature in Japan. The cornerstone of this achievement was the reference texts—Chinese classics annotated with kunten—stored in the homes of these scholars. Meanwhile, the import of original Chinese texts progressed amid new waves of change driven by developments in China: the invention and spread of woodblock printing. This shift began in the mid-Heian period among the monks studying in Song China and the high-ranking nobles who welcomed them while also maintaining ties with Song merchants. Thus, the reception of Northern Song editions in Japan initially focused on Buddhist scriptures, though it also involved the spread of Northern Song official editions, ultimately fulfilling the demands of the Kiden-dō scholar families. Around this time, Buddhist temples in Nara also began publishing scholarly texts, learning from the Song editions. However, at the start of the late Heian period, also known as the Insei period, against the backdrop of the Fujiwara clan's privatization of court politics, the advancement of the Kiden-dō scholars reached saturation, and their scholarship gradually declined. At this time, those who relatively improved their status were the Confucian scholars of the Myōgyō-dō school, who had been the foundation of Japanese Sinology. During the Insei period, shifts in the power structure prompted reflection on the relationship between Sinology and court administration, leading to a renewed appreciation for the value of Confucian studies. This movement was observed across various sectors and ultimately revitalized the Myōgyō-dō scholar families. The importation of Song editions played a significant role in this process, as the collated texts of these editions renewed the value of the scholar families' authoritative editions. Consequently, a widespread phenomenon emerged where differences between old manuscript editions and printed editions, along with phonetic readings and commentaries, were transcribed into the old manuscript editions. This vigorous activity led to the rise of the Kiyohara family of the Myōgyō-dō tradition. The rise of the Kiyohara family marked the beginning of the medieval period in Japanese Sinology. However, the publication of Chinese texts by Japanese hands still required time, and it was not until the late medieval period, the Nanboku-chō era, that this would occur. 古代における日本の学術思想や科学知識は､