3D concrete printing for digital construction: Materials, process integration, and emerging performance paradigms

Three-dimensional concrete printing (3DCP), also referred to as digital concrete fabrication, has emerged as a transformative construction technology that integrates material science, digital design, and automated fabrication. Unlike conventional concrete construction, 3DCP eliminates formwork, enables unprecedented geometric freedom, and allows material to be placed only where structurally required. However, the performance of 3D-printed concrete structures is governed not only by mix design but also by tightly coupled interactions between fresh-state rheology, hardware systems, printing strategies, and process control. This perspective-style review synthesises recent advances in 3D concrete printing with a particular emphasis on process-material-performance integration. The paper critically discusses printable mix design, fresh-state properties and testing, hardware and printing strategies, and the unique hardened properties and durability characteristics of printed concrete. Emerging trends, including reinforcement strategies, real-time monitoring, and digital twin frameworks, are highlighted, and key research gaps are identified to guide future developments toward reliable, scalable, and sustainable 3D concrete printing.