Abstract The rapid growth of mobile communication technologies and the introduction of new cellular networks have led to increased public exposure to radiofrequency electromagnetic fields (RF-EMFs), raising concerns regarding potential health effects. This study investigates RF-EMF exposure of individuals not using a wireless device themselves, referred to as “bystander exposure,” across a wide range of indoor and outdoor locations in Greece. Measurements were conducted between September 2023 and September 2025 using the EME Spy Evolution personal exposimeter and covering all cellular uplink and downlink frequency bands, the 5G NR band at 3.6 GHz, and Wi-Fi bands of 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz. A total of 16,900 measurement points were collected across 76 microenvironments in urban, suburban, and rural locations, under both high- and low-traffic conditions. Results show that downlink exposure dominates in urban areas, while uplink exposure is higher in rural environments due to lower base station density. Indoor environments exhibit a greater uplink contribution to the total bystander exposure than outdoor environments, while outdoor locations are primarily dominated by downlink exposure. The 5G 3.6 GHz band contributes minimally to the average exposure but can produce occasional peaks reaching up to 82% of the total received power in certain cases. In indoor environments, the Wi-Fi band of 5 GHz contributes more to the total bystander exposure than the band of 2.4 GHz, whereas the 2.4 GHz Wi-Fi band contributes almost equally to both indoor and outdoor locations.
Delidimitriou et al. (Mon,) studied this question.