Tenebrio molitor as a sustainable source of proteins and bioactive peptides: extraction techniques, functional properties, and applications

The growing demand for sustainable protein has introduced Tenebrio molitor ( T. molitor) larvae as a promising alternative to commonly used proteins due to its high nutritional value and cost efficiency. This review comprehensively examined the potential of T. molitor larvae as a source of high-quality proteins and bioactive peptides for food and feed applications. T. molitor has a remarkably high protein content approaching 63.3% of dry mass depending on the rearing conditions, larval age, and efficiency of the extraction method. Additionally, it is a valuable source of bioactive peptides. Byproducts of the protein extraction process, including chitosan and unsaturated fatty acids, could be used in several applications. Hence, this review elucidated the functional properties and applications of T. molitor -derived proteins and peptides and their use in food and feed products. The review also explored current protein extraction techniques, while addressing challenges such as lipid and chitin separation and removal. Enzymatic hydrolysis method yielded the highest protein recovery (~ 90%) with excellent digestibility, while ultrasound-assisted alkaline extraction offered a balance between yield and functional preservation. We proposed strategies to optimize T. molitor production and to expand the applications of T. molitor -based products. Wheat bran substrate, early larval harvesting and probiotic supplementation were shown to significantly enhance protein content and reduce anti-nutrient factors. Additionally, key barriers to large-scale commercialization were addressed, including consumer acceptance, regulatory concerns, and scalability limitations. Finally, we proposed several approaches to overcome these challenges.