Is Free Education Really Free? Achievements and Challenges of Free Basic and Secondary Education in Sub‐Saharan Africa

ABSTRACT Free education policies have been widely adopted across sub‐Saharan Africa (SSA) as a strategy to expand access, promote equity, and foster human capital development. This review examines whether free education in SSA is genuinely free, identifies the challenges associated with implementing such policies, and highlights achievements and success stories across selected countries. Evidence from Ghana, Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania, Malawi, and Nigeria reveals that while tuition fees have largely been abolished, households continue to bear significant indirect costs, including uniforms, textbooks, transport, and boarding, which disproportionately affect marginalized groups. Implementation challenges such as overcrowded classrooms, teacher shortages, inadequate infrastructure, declining quality, and governance deficits further constrain the effectiveness of free education. Despite these barriers, free education initiatives have led to notable successes, including increased enrollment, improved gender parity, inclusion of marginalized populations, and enhanced human capital development. Applying Structural Violence Theory, this review demonstrates that systemic social, economic, and political structures limit the full realization of educational rights, highlighting the need for equity‐oriented, context‐specific interventions. The findings underscore the importance of combining fee abolition with targeted support, investment in infrastructure and teacher capacity, and inclusive policies to ensure that free education is genuinely accessible and effective.