"background": "Water treatment infrastructure in many developing regions faces challenges in performance assessment due to heterogeneous system designs and sparse, inconsistent monitoring data. Conventional engineering models often fail to adequately quantify uncertainty or leverage information across multiple facilities. ", "purpose and objectives": "This case study aimed to develop and apply a Bayesian hierarchical model to diagnose systemic inefficiencies and quantify potential treatment efficiency gains across a network of water treatment facilities. The objective was to provide a robust, probabilistic framework for infrastructure optimisation. ", "methodology": "A case study methodology was employed, analysing operational data from multiple treatment plants. A Bayesian hierarchical model was constructed, formalised as y{ij \ (\ + \ Xij, \), with \ \ (\\, \\), where yij represents efficiency metric i for plant j. This allowed for partial pooling of estimates, improving inference for plants with limited data. Posterior distributions were estimated using Markov chain Monte Carlo sampling. ", "findings": "The model identified substantial variation in baseline coagulation efficiency between plants, with a central 80% credible interval for plant-level intercepts \ⱼ ranging from 0. 62 to 0. 89. Partial pooling through the hierarchical structure reduced posterior uncertainty for smaller plants by an average of 34% compared to independent models. Diagnostic analysis highlighted inlet turbidity management as a critical, system-wide leverage point for improvement. ", "conclusion": "The Bayesian hierarchical approach provided a statistically rigorous and operationally actionable framework for system-wide performance diagnosis under data constraints typical of the study context. ", "recommendations": "Implement routine data collection aligned with the model's key parameters. Prioritise interventions targeting inlet turbidity control. Adopt the hierarchical modelling framework for future infrastructure performance audits to enable probabilistic benchmarking and targeted resource allocation. ", "key words": "Bayesian inference, hierarchical model, water treatment, infrastructure diagnostics, performance optimisation,
Jean de Dieu Uwimana (Sun,) studied this question.