Education is a fundamental human right and a key driver of socio-economic development; however, its spatial distribution and infrastructural correlates remain uneven across regions. Despite overall improvements in literacy in India, limited attention has been paid to district-level spatial disparities in educational infrastructure and literacy outcomes in geographically heterogeneous states such as Manipur. Existing studies largely overlook how terrain-induced accessibility constraints and infrastructural distribution jointly shape literacy disparities across hill and valley regions. Addressing this gap, the present study examines the spatial patterns of literacy levels, gender disparities, and educational infrastructure across the districts of Manipur. The study seeks to address the following objectives (i) to analyze district-wise spatial variations in literacy rates and gender disparities; (ii) to examine the distribution of educational infrastructure, including schools, colleges, enrolment, and teacher-related indicators; and (iii) to assess the spatial association between literacy outcomes and educational infrastructure across hill and valley regions. Using secondary data, the analysis employs Choropleth and Dot Mapping techniques, Multiple Bar Graphs, Pearson’s correlation analysis, and Local Indicators of Spatial Association (LISA) cluster mapping to identify spatial patterns and associations. The findings reveal pronounced spatial heterogeneity in literacy and educational infrastructure. Districts such as Imphal West, Imphal East, and Churachandpur consistently record higher literacy levels, spatially associated with relatively better availability of educational institutions and favorable teacher–student ratios. In contrast, districts such as Senapati and Tengnoupal exhibit lower literacy levels, corresponding with rugged terrain and comparatively limited infrastructural presence. Thoubal district registers the highest male–female literacy disparity index (0.209). Educational institutions, including schools and colleges, are heavily concentrated in the Imphal Valley, while hill districts exhibit relatively sparse institutional coverage and enrolment. The study highlights persistent spatial inequalities in educational access within Manipur and underscores the need for region-specific planning that accounts for geographical constraints. The findings provide a spatially informed baseline for future policy interventions and suggest scope for further research incorporating qualitative dimensions of educational quality, accessibility, and recent infrastructural developments.
Meitei et al. (Wed,) studied this question.