Abstract The rapid advancement of artificial intelligence (AI) relies on a complex supply chain comprising five key layers: hardware, cloud infrastructure, training data, foundation models and AI applications. This paper examines the market structure of each layer and highlights the economic forces shaping them: rapid technological change, high fixed costs, economies of scale, network effects and in some cases, strategic behaviour by dominant firms. We also highlight the expanding influence of big tech companies across the AI supply chain. We discuss the challenges for consumer choice, innovation, operational resilience, cybersecurity and financial stability.
Gambacorta et al. (Tue,) studied this question.