Digital Governance in Federal Nepal: A Comparative Socio-Technical Assessment Across Provinces

Abstract Digital governance has emerged as a critical driver of administrative efficiency, transparency, and inclusive public service delivery, particularly in developing countries undergoing institutional transformation. In Nepal, the transition to a federal governance system in 2015 redistributed administrative responsibilities across provincial governments, making digital governance a central component of subnational governance performance. This study presents a comparative socio-technical assessment of digital governance across seven provinces of Nepal: Bagmati, Koshi, Gandaki, Lumbini, Madhesh, Sudurpashchim, and Karnali. The study adopts a socio-technical framework that integrates four key dimensions: infrastructure, institutional capacity, human capacity, and digital services. Using a qualitative and comparative analytical approach based on secondary data, policy documents, and ICT governance practices, the research identifies distinct patterns of digital governance development across provinces. The findings reveal that digital governance in Nepal follows a staged progression. Provinces such as Karnali and Sudurpashchim remain constrained by infrastructure and foundational capacity limitations. Gandaki and Lumbini represent intermediate stages characterized by geographic disparities and uneven development. Madhesh Province faces institutional and socio-cultural constraints despite relatively better accessibility. Koshi Province demonstrates transitional progress with partial system integration, while Bagmati Province represents an advanced stage with challenges related to system optimization and interoperability. The study argues that digital governance is not a uniform process but a context-dependent socio-technical system where challenges evolve from access to integration and ultimately to optimization. The research contributes to the literature by providing a comprehensive provincial comparison and highlighting the need for differentiated, context-specific digital governance strategies in federal systems. Keywords: Digital Governance, ICT4D, Digital Divide, Federal Nepal, E-Governance, Socio-Technical Systems, Public Service Delivery