Early Islamic Theological Debates on Asmāʾ and Aḥkām: The Epistle of Khalaf b. Ziyād al-Baḥrānī

Abstract This study examines the theological debates surrounding the Ibāḍī epistle of Khalaf b. Ziyād al-Baḥrānī, written in the early 2nd/8th century. The epistle, which focuses on the theological concept of al-asmāʾ wa-l-aḥkām (names and rulings), represents one of the earliest known discussions of faith classifications and their legal implications in Islam. Khalaf’s work is compared to Kitāb al-Irjāʾ and the Epistle of Sālim ibn Dhakwān, highlighting how early Islamic sects, particularly the Ibāḍīs, Murjiʾites, and Muʿtazilites, debated the definitions of īmān (faith) and kufr (unbelief). The study situates Khalaf’s epistle within the broader theological discourse of the period, showing how his classification of faith-related rulings influenced later Ibāḍī thought. It also challenges the assumption that Ibāḍism only matured as a structured doctrine in the 6th/12th century, demonstrating its continuous evolution from the early Islamic period.