Feedback, competition, and cooperation: Behavioral effects of gamification elements in individual and team settings

Gamification aims to increase user motivation and engagement by incorporating game design elements into non-game contexts. This study examines how two commonly used gamification elements (progress bars and leaderboards) shape user engagement and contribution behaviors within different participation structures (individual and team-based), drawing on Self-Determination Theory and Social Interdependence Theory as interpretive frameworks. A six-condition experimental design (N = 219) was implemented on an online interaction platform (Board) designed by the researchers, comparing leaderboards, progress bars, and non-gamified conditions under individual and team-based participation settings. Behavioral outcomes were measured using a weighted behavioral scoring system for productive actions (contribution) and session duration (participation). The results showed that gamification had a significant overall effect on contribution and participation. Both leaderboard and progress bar conditions produced higher contribution scores than the non-gamified control, whereas longer participation duration was observed only in the leaderboard condition. No significant main effect of participation structure or interaction effect between participation structure and gamification element was found. Correlation analysis showed a positive association between session duration and contribution. Overall, the findings suggest that the behavioral impact of gamification in this short-term setting is driven more by the presence of salient feedback than by the specific element used, and that short-term team structures may be insufficient for stronger interdependence-related processes to emerge. The study highlights the importance of integrating motivational and social design considerations in gamification research and offers practical implications for short-term digital engagement in organizational and educational contexts.