Antimony in the environment: A critical review

Antimony (Sb) is a critical metalloid, primarily found in the environment in companion with other elements of the same group, such as arsenic and bismuth. Low-temperature magmatic-hydrothermal systems formed at shallow depths are the most favourable environment for the formation of Sb deposits. Mining activities and the use of Sb in many industrial and consumer products have led to the widespread distribution of Sb in the environment and subsequent risks to ecosystems and human health. Thus, it is essential to better understand the cycling and geochemical behaviour of Sb in the environment to mitigate its environmental impacts while promoting the best approaches for mining and recycling Sb from secondary sources to meet rising global demand. This review summarizes recent research on Sb in the environment, covering its sources, chemistry, mineralogy, speciation, and environmental behaviour, including mobility, distribution, and transformation. We discuss analytical methods for the measurement of Sb and critically evaluate available remediation strategies for water, soil, and mine waste. Finally, the paper presents novel strategies for Sb recovery and recycling that may help to address concerns about its future supply. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the current state of knowledge on Sb in the environment and discusses some key knowledge gaps and future research directions. • The chemical form of antimony depends on pH and redox conditions, affecting its toxicity, mobility, and transformation in the environment. • Tripuhyite is considered one of the most stable mineral phases capable of immobilizing antimony in oxidizing environments. • Antimony can cause acute and chronic toxicity due to occupational exposure or during therapy. • Adsorption (Fe- or Mn-based adsorbents) and cementation are the most efficacious techniques for Sb remediation from water and Sb-bearing mine waste/soil, respectively. • Alkaline sulphide leaching and electrochemistry (electrodeposition) are methods used for antimony recovery from antimony-bearing residues, spent catalysts, and lead–acid batteries.