Abstract The Crimean War and the Russia–Ukraine conflict—two wars separated by time—may be viewed not only as conflicts involving Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and Ukraine, but also as broader confrontations between Russia and Europe. From the perspective of Russia–Europe relations, a comparative analysis of these two wars reveals a series of similarities. These similarities indicate that the contradictions within Russia–Europe relations have historical roots, particularly in geopolitics, civilizational identity, identity politics, ideology, and security fears. In other words, geopolitical competition, civilizational identity gaps, and mutual security fears are structural factors underpinning Russia–Europe relations, with a sustained and profound impact on them. To a certain extent, the current Russia–Europe conflict is a continuation of historical tensions. Although the outcomes of the Crimean War and the Russia–Ukraine conflict may differ, they share similar effects on Russia's domestic and foreign policies, particularly in driving domestic economic, social, and military reforms. Diplomatically, both the Crimean War and the Russia–Ukraine conflict have dealt heavy blows to Russia–Europe relations, especially the latter, prompting a shift in Russian diplomacy toward the East.
Huasheng Zhao (2026) studied this question.