This study aims to explore the theoretical and practical dimensions of civil disobedience within the framework of Imam Ali’s governance. It seeks to derive a political, social, religious, and rational model from the approach of the Islamic government during the era of Imam Ali in addressing various forms of civil opposition and citizens’ protests. Civil disobedience during Imam Ali’s era can be categorized into groups such as critics, political opponents, rebels, and those who broke their allegiance (e.g., the Kharijites). The primary question of this research is: How and based on what ethical and legal principles, did Imam Ali address civil disobedience during his governance, and what model did he employ? The research hypothesis rests upon the idea that Imam Ali’s approach can be analyzed as a model of interactive and non-confrontational engagement with protest actions. This model is grounded in ethical, legal, and political principles, resulting in a spectrum of responses to civil disobedience (from critics to subversives). The study focuses on the conduct and governance methods of Imam Ali, aiming to uncover the latent capacities in his political discourse, behavior, and practices to address the contemporary needs of Islamic governance systems in managing civil protest actions. The research adopts a descriptive-analytical approach, utilizing historical, jurisprudential, and hadith-based sources, particularly the Nahj al-Balagha. Data collection was conducted through library studies and analysis of Imam Ali’s statements and behaviors, employing a conceptual inference method to extract his behavioral model toward civil opposition. The findings indicate that Imam Ali successfully distinguished between reformist opponents and subversive adversaries, recognizing fundamental principles such as tolerance, human dignity, freedom of expression, and the right to advice, protest, and criticism for all citizens of the Islamic society. On one hand, with divine rationality and open-mindedness, he acknowledged the voice of dissent; on the other, as long as protesters’ actions did not pose a threatening or subversive challenge to the system, he preserved their place within the social and even political structures of governance, allowing them active and constructive participation. Based on the research findings and meticulous examination of reliable sources and analysis of Imam Ali’s conduct, his behavior can be described as an ethical, participatory, dialogue-oriented, and justice-centered model for addressing civil disobedience. This model not only strengthens the religious and rational legitimacy of governance but also plays a significant role in preventing social fragmentation, reducing political tensions, and maintaining national cohesion. The study suggests that civil disobedience, within the framework of Shiite rationality and Islamic theological principles, is not only acceptable but, in many cases, a constructive necessity for achieving justice, reformations, ensuring accountability of authorities, and fostering a space for political interaction and citizen participation toward societal progress.
Enteshari et al. (Tue,) studied this question.