Management practices and elevated atmospheric CO2 levels helped to sustain a high level of global rice production

Rice is a staple agricultural resource for over half the global population. Using the data-modeling methods, which account for major biophysical processes and all major environmental and management factors, our study shows that rice production for 2006–2015 has increased by almost 2-fold since the 1960s, despite growing concerns about climate change and other extreme climate event risks. Management practices through the expansion of irrigated and non-irrigated cropping harvested areas and the increased rates of N fertilizer and manure application have helped to maintain higher production rates since the 1960s. The global production of rice for the decade 2006–2015 was 713 million tons per year, with South and Southeast Asia by far the largest rice-producing region, and China (24%), India (22%), and Thailand (9%) being the top three producers. Multiple cropping increases overall production, with the highest rice yield in season one due to a longer growing period and favorable conditions, while yields decline in the subsequent seasons. The results show that global transplanted rice yields are 25% higher than direct-seeded rice yields. Accounting for the effects of management factors, the total production increased by 76%. The expansion of rice-planting areas was the primary management contributing factor (52%), with the expansion of irrigated planted areas contributing 39% and rainfed 13%. Other management practices that helped increase production include N fertilizer and manure (24%). Our results also reveal that environmental factors increased productivity by 24% in the recent decade, with rising atmospheric CO 2 concentration increasing productivity by 30% and N deposition by 1%. In contrast, climate change reduced production by 7%. These findings highlight the critical role of management practices, especially the expansion of irrigated areas and fertilizer use, in driving recent increases in rice production. Accounting for these factors is crucial for accurate projections and effective rice cultivation planning.