Climate variability and extreme weather events pose an increasingly serious threat to agricultural productivity in Europe. Although many studies have focused on the mean yield response to climate change, relatively few have attempted to offer a comprehensive, multi-dimensional view of agricultural resilience, separating long-term productivity trends from short-term climate-induced fluctuations. In this paper, a data-driven Climate Resilience Index is proposed to assess the resilience of European cereal systems under climate stress. Annual yield time series are decomposed into trend and anomaly components to identify interannual deviations driven by climate variability. Machine learning and deep learning algorithms, including RF, CatBoost, CNN, LSTM, TCN, and a TCN-LSTM hybrid model, are used to assess the predictive validity of climate extreme indices and persistence patterns. Among the evaluated models, the TCN-LSTM architecture achieved the highest predictive performance with 0.8347 R 2 , outperforming standalone temporal and ensemble-based models. The PCA-based exposure framework explained 68.4% of the total climate variability within the first principal component, indicating a highly concentrated climate-stress structure. Feature importance analyses further revealed that lagged yield anomalies and rolling volatility indicators were the dominant predictors of resilience dynamics. The findings show that temporal models perform better than traditional ensemble methods, emphasizing the significance of multi-year recovery mechanisms in anomaly evolution. To provide a consistent measure of exposure, principal component analysis is used to reduce correlated climate indicators into a multi-dimensional climate stress index. The CRI captures these three essential elements: climate exposure, yield variability, and recovery. The results at the country level show substantial variability across Europe, indicating that while exposure intensity is important, recovery dynamics are also critical to understanding resilience. The results also show that there are structurally distinct resilience profiles, and robustness tests indicate that country rankings are not sensitive to different weights and recovery functions. The results clearly show that recovery and adaptive capacity are critical to agricultural sustainability amid growing climate uncertainty. The CRI developed in this paper provides a clear, empirically valid framework for comparing resilience in agricultural systems.
Utku et al. (Wed,) studied this question.