Multi-Dimensional Comparative Analysis of Patent-to-Patent Citations and Patent-to-Paper Citations

Abstract Purpose This study aims to systematically compare patent-to-patent and patent-to-paper citations, and to examine how their differences reflect distinct modes of knowledge flow between technological development and scientific research. Design/methodology/approach Using United States patent data from PATSTAT, combined with the Reliance on Science dataset and the Microsoft Academic Graph, we conduct a multi-dimensional analysis across four measures: citation frequency, citation time lag, semantic similarity, and science intensity. Patents are further classified by technological domain, innovation type, and citation source to capture heterogeneity in citation patterns. Findings Patent-to-patent citations are more frequent and exhibit higher semantic similarity, whereas patent-to-paper citations tend to occur with shorter time lags. Patents with higher impact are more likely to be associated with stronger linkages to scientific knowledge, particularly within a moderate range of influence. Emerging technological fields show a greater tendency to integrate recent scientific knowledge, while exploratory innovations draw on more technologically similar and interdisciplinary sources and exhibit shorter citation lags. Applicant citations are slightly more frequent, whereas examiner citations are more temporally proximate and semantically aligned with the citing patents. Research limitations The analysis is based on citation data, which capture observable linkage patterns but do not directly identify causal mechanisms. In addition, classification of technological domains and innovation types may not fully account for within-field heterogeneity. Practical implications The findings provide empirical insights for policymakers, research institutions, and corporate R&D practitioners seeking to better understand and manage the interaction between scientific research and technological innovation, and to design more effective innovation and patent strategies. Originality/value This study offers a comprehensive and systematic comparison of patent-to-patent and patent-to-paper citations across multiple dimensions and contexts, contributing to a more nuanced understanding of science–technology linkages and the structure of knowledge flows in innovation systems.