Diplomacy has long been recognized as one of the cornerstones of international relations. At its core, diplomacy is the practice of managing relations between political entities, traditionally sovereign states, through dialogue, negotiation and cooperation (Pouliot and Cornut, 2015). It serves as both an art and a science: an art of persuasion, compromise and representation and a science of protocol, law and structured engagement. Its central importance lies in its capacity to prevent conflict, maintain peace and build channels for cooperation even in times of political tension (Malis, 2021). In the contemporary global order, diplomacy is not confined to conflict resolution alone. It is equally vital for economic growth, cultural exchange and international collaboration (Faucher, 2016). The ability of diplomacy to build trust and foster long-term relationships makes it an indispensable tool in navigating today's interdependent world. As such, diplomacy is not only about political negotiation but also about the wider processes of fostering understanding, cultivating goodwill and advancing shared human values across borders (Faucher, 2016).Traditionally, diplomacy was associated with official representatives such as ambassadors, foreign ministers and heads of state. They operate within the realm of formal political negotiations. The “old diplomacy” was often secretive, exclusive and dominated by the pursuit of national interests. However, the rise of globalization and the spread of communication technologies have transformed the practice and meaning of diplomacy and empowered a diverse array of non-state actors, including non-governmental organizations (NGOs), multinational corporations, civil society groups and even armed groups, to engage in activities that were once reserved for states (Plundrich, 2024). The late 20th century saw the growth of new diplomacies, encompassing areas such as economic diplomacy (Estrin et al., 2020), environmental diplomacy (Paglia, 2021), science diplomacy (Mauduit and Soler, 2020) and cultural diplomacy (Kunkel, 2021). These shifts reflected the increasing complexity of international issues, which could no longer be addressed solely through political channels. Climate change, global health, migration and cultural integration demanded broader cooperation and the involvement of multiple stakeholders. Non-state actors, including international organizations, businesses, NGOs and even civil society groups, emerged as significant players in shaping international relations (Hart and Siniver, 2020).Within this broader transformation, tourism has gained recognition as a powerful dimension of diplomacy (Padmakanth et al., 2025). Unlike traditional diplomacy, which often operates behind closed doors, tourism diplomacy is grounded in direct, people-to-people engagement. It is shaped not only by governments but also by communities, private sector actors and tourists themselves. Hence, tourism diplomacy embodies a more participatory and inclusive form of international interaction (Baranowski et al., 2019).Tourism, as one of the largest and fastest-growing industries globally, has an influence that extends far beyond economics. While tourism contributes significantly to national Gross Domestic Products (GDPs), employment and investment, it also operates as a medium of communication, cultural expression and relationship-building between nations (Padmakanth et al., 2025). Tourism fosters what is often referred to as people-to-people diplomacy. Tourism encourages direct encounters with foreign cultures, traditions and lifestyles by facilitating the movement of individuals across borders (Gillen, 2025). These encounters have the potential to break down stereotypes, challenge prejudices and cultivate empathy and mutual respect. Unlike political negotiations, which are often about reaching consensus due to differences, tourism experiences highlight commonalities and shared human values (Silva et al., 2025).Evidently, tourism diplomacy is not limited to elite-driven strategies. Grassroots initiatives such as cross-border community tourism projects, regional heritage trails and ecotourism networks demonstrate how tourism can serve as a neutral platform for cooperation. In post-conflict contexts, tourism has been used to rebuild trust, encourage reconciliation and create shared economic incentives for peace (Guasca et al., 2022). For example, cross-border tourism initiatives in divided regions provide opportunities for dialogue and collaboration, offering a tangible pathway toward stability and understanding (Díaz-Sauceda et al., 2015). In the current global landscape, tourism diplomacy is becoming increasingly relevant as nations seek innovative and non-confrontational ways to engage with one another. One of its most evident roles lies in the realm of soft power and national image (Zhu et al., 2022). Tourism functions as a powerful cultural showcase, allowing countries to project positive narratives about their heritage, values and modern achievements (Erwin and Sturm, 2022). Through destination marketing, cultural festivals and international events, tourism diplomacy helps shape global perceptions and contributes to a country's reputation on the world stage (Hall, 2019). Therefore, tourism is not merely about attracting visitors; it is about communicating identity and fostering goodwill.Beyond image building, tourism diplomacy also plays an important role in peacebuilding and conflict resolution (Guasca et al., 2022), understanding and cooperation among nations, fostering global connections, promoting cultural exchange and stimulating economic growth (Demir and Demir, 2025). Tourism initiatives often create neutral spaces that transcend political disputes. Cross-border tourism corridors, joint conservation efforts and heritage collaborations are examples of projects that open avenues for cooperation where formal negotiations may be stalled (Causevic and Lynch, 2011). These shared initiatives provide tangible incentives for dialogue, demonstrating how tourism can operate as a subtle but effective mechanism for rebuilding trust and promoting reconciliation among divided communities. Tourism diplomacy is also closely linked with the achievement of the United Nations' 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. It advances goals related to inclusive economic growth, gender equality, environmental protection and intercultural dialogue. When embedded in diplomatic practice, tourism provides a platform for nations to collectively pursue a balance between economic benefits and responsible outcomes. Aligning tourism strategies with the Sustainable Development Goals allows states to promote their destinations while signalling their commitment to global equity and sustainability (UNWTO, 2022).The importance of tourism diplomacy became particularly visible during the COVID-19 pandemic. The crisis highlighted both the vulnerabilities of tourism and its potential role in recovery diplomacy. Countries were compelled to collaborate in reopening borders, harmonizing health protocols and restoring traveller confidence. These coordinated efforts underscored the capacity of tourism diplomacy to foster cross-border cooperation in the face of shared global crises (Gössling et al., 2020). The same logic applies to other pressing challenges such as climate change and biodiversity loss, where coordinated tourism initiatives can help bridge diverse national interests and responsibilities.In other words, tourism diplomacy is an intricate relationship between several mechanisms. First and foremost, it facilitates direct, people-to-people exchanges on a massive scale. Every tourist, whether consciously or not, acts as an “informal diplomat” or a “backpack ambassador” (Rosenbaum et al., 2019). These personal interactions can humanize a foreign nation, break down stereotypes and build a reservoir of mutual understanding and goodwill that is often more resilient than formal state-to-state relations.Second, tourism is a vital tool for strategic nation-branding and image projection. A positive national image is a core component of soft power, and tourism provides a platform to showcase a country's culture, heritage and hospitality to an international audience (Budapest Metropolitan University, 2022). By curating and promoting an attractive image, states can influence global perceptions, which in turn can attract not only more visitors but also foreign direct investment, talented workers and political support (Claro et al., 2023).Finally, the sheer economic weight of the global tourism industry has made it a tangible instrument of economic diplomacy. States can leverage tourism to strengthen bilateral and multilateral ties and pursue national development goals and even as a tool of economic statecraft. The functions of tourism diplomacy are diverse, ranging from bridging differences and consolidating alliances to boosting economies and facilitating cultural exchange (Li, 2019).Tourism has increasingly served as a platform for diplomacy, not only through high-profile global events but also through regional initiatives and grassroots collaborations. These activities create opportunities for dialogue, strengthen cultural understanding and facilitate cooperation in ways that traditional political negotiations often cannot achieve. One of the most visible manifestations of tourism diplomacy is through mega-events such as the Olympic Games, the FIFA World Cup and World Expos. These events are not merely sporting or cultural spectacles; they are carefully orchestrated opportunities for nations to present themselves to the world. For example, the 2008 Beijing Olympics showcased China's economic rise and cultural heritage, projecting soft power and shaping global perceptions. Similarly, Qatar's hosting of the 2022 FIFA World Cup demonstrated how tourism diplomacy can be mobilized to reposition a country's international image and strengthen its ties with the global community (El-Dabt et al., 2025). Despite some political controversies revolving around these events, they illustrate how tourism-oriented diplomacy extends beyond the tangibles to encompass international branding, infrastructure development and global engagement.Regional tourism collaborations also demonstrate the diplomatic role of tourism. The ASEAN Tourism Forum (ATF), held annually among Southeast Asian nations, provides a platform for cooperation in marketing, sustainability and cultural exchange. Promoting ‘Southeast Asia as one destination’ allows the ATF to stimulate regional tourism flows while fostering regional solidarity and trust (Henderson, 2015). Similarly, the European Capitals of Culture initiative, launched in 1985, rotates annually among EU member states to highlight cultural diversity while building unity and strengthening diplomatic ties through tourism and cultural programs (Basaraba, 2023). Tourism diplomacy is also evident in cross-border heritage and peace initiatives. Cross-border heritage projects exemplify this diplomatic dimension, with initiatives like the ZBORZBIRK project linking thirty-four collections across the Slovenian-Italian border area and the Walk of Peace trail connecting Isonzo Front remnants across both nations (Lozej and Pisk, 2021).Smaller-scale, community-driven initiatives can be equally powerful in manifesting tourism diplomacy. For instance, community-based tourism (CBT) projects in border areas of the countries in Southeast Asia have fostered dialogues among local communities while strengthening cross-border ties (Kontogeorgopoulos, 2016) in spite of the recent border tensions between Thailand and Cambodia. In post-conflict regions such as the Balkans, tourism has been used to encourage reconciliation and rebuild social fabric by developing joint cultural and heritage routes (Aussems, 2016). These examples illustrate that tourism diplomacy does not always require large-scale international events; it can also thrive at the grassroots level where people-to-people exchanges occur most directly.Tourism diplomacy stands apart from traditional statecraft because of the way it works and the spaces where it takes place. Instead of being limited to formal negotiations or closed-door meetings between political elites, it unfolds in everyday encounters, through shared experiences, cultural exchanges and human interactions that cut across borders. This makes tourism a softer and more approachable form of diplomacy, one that relies on dialogue, trust and mutual respect. To appreciate its role in international relations, it is important to look at the qualities that make diplomacy through tourism unique. These characteristics show how tourism benefits people and fosters peacebuilding and partnerships, as well as supports efforts toward a more sustainable and inclusive society (planet).People-centred: Tourism diplomacy possesses several unique characteristics that distinguish it from more traditional forms of diplomacy. It is inherently people-centred. Unlike state-to-state negotiations that often occur at elite levels, tourism diplomacy involves direct encounters between ordinary people across borders. Tourists, hosts and local communities all become actors and even equal partners in diplomacy through their interactions, creating bonds that are personal, emotional and cultural in nature. This “people-to-people” dimension makes tourism diplomacy more accessible and inclusive (Baranowski et al., 2019).Experiential and cultural: Tourism diplomacy is often experiential and cultural. Tourism allows individuals to engage with foreign cultures in immersive ways, through food, festivals, heritage sites or nature experiences. These embodied experiences carry a deeper impact than abstract diplomatic dialogues, as they foster empathy, appreciation and mutual respect by engaging multiple senses and emotions (Collinson and Baxter, 2022).Multi-scalar: Tourism diplomacy is multi-scalar. It operates simultaneously at global, regional, national and community levels in a hybrid format (i.e. in person and online to create a blended approach). Mega-events shape international perceptions, regional forums build intergovernmental cooperation and community tourism fosters local-level understanding. This multi-scalar nature enables tourism diplomacy to complement and reinforce traditional diplomatic strategies (Gillen, 2025).Non-confrontational and flexible: Tourism diplomacy is non-confrontational and flexible. Unlike political negotiations, which often focus on contested issues, tourism emphasizes shared interests such as cultural pride, heritage preservation and environmental protection. It creates neutral platforms for cooperation where sensitive political discussions might otherwise be avoided (Baranowski et al., 2019). It is flexible, as it allows serendipitous or unplanned but contingent matters to be addressed.Economic and developmental dimension: Tourism diplomacy carries an economic and developmental dimension. Stimulating cross-border flows of people and capital generates mutual economic benefits that incentivize cooperation. When linked with responsible tourism practices, these benefits extend beyond profit to include empowerment of local communities, protection of heritage and advancement of sustainability goals (Goodwin, 2011).The benefits of tourism diplomacy extend to multiple stakeholders. For states, it enhances soft power, strengthens national image and creates economic opportunities. For regions, it fosters integration, builds solidarity and enables joint branding strategies. For local communities, tourism diplomacy provides opportunities for cultural recognition, livelihood diversification and international exposure. For the global community, it contributes to peacebuilding, cross-cultural understanding and the pursuit of shared sustainability goals (Heslinga et al., 2019). In sum, tourism diplomacy represents a form of international engagement that transcends politics while remaining deeply connected to the human experience.Geopolitical tensions and instability: One of the biggest obstacles to effective tourism diplomacy is geopolitical conflict or political instability. Regions that would otherwise benefit from cross-border cooperation or joint tourism initiatives often suffer from sudden diplomatic breakdowns, border closures or travel restrictions. For example, cross-border cooperation enables tourism development in the Kosovo-Albania border region, which has been hindered by the closure of state borders. Closure of states within the classical boundaries causes obstacles, not only for the development of cross-border tourism, especially when viewed from the perspective of sustainable tourism development in this region (Ramadani et al., 2020).Climate issues and environmental vulnerabilities: Climate issues are reshaping which destinations are viable and safe. Destinations, particularly small islands, coastal areas or those reliant on fragile ecosystems, face increasing risks from extreme weather, rising sea levels and loss of biodiversity (Loehr, 2020). These environmental stresses not only affect tourist attractiveness but also heighten tensions around who bears responsibility for mitigation and adaptation. There is also a growing pressure to reduce tourism's carbon footprint; aviation and cross-border travel represent “hard to abate” emissions. Efforts to address these issues are often politically and economically uneven.Unequal capacities, resources and infrastructure: Countries and regions differ greatly in their capacity to leverage tourism diplomacy. Many developing destinations face limitations in infrastructure, human resources, digital connectivity, regulatory coherence and access to finance (Chorna et al., 2024). These gaps hinder their ability to compete in international tourism or to tourism in diplomacy often forms of tourism such as of limited or between reduce and to Tourism is sensitive to The COVID-19 how cross-border travel health and can tourism These not reduce they employment and diplomatic initiatives to tourism. Many countries have to with protocols and restoring traveller confidence. this of to be in with or where tourism is a of the increasing the of economic and identity politics and local community Tourism diplomacy often to showcase cultural heritage or but risks or it for and other communities can that their is being or which may to or the demanded by international tourists local As tourism diplomacy to a for international local may be in and 2020). This can the deeper of mutual respect and and Tourism diplomacy involves national and local private sector community groups, and often international across these actors is a 2015). and of to issues such as of economic growth environmental protection cultural regulatory cross-border image and challenges carry several important for of tourism diplomacy. diplomacy through tourism cannot political crises or can at For this and conflict be tourism diplomacy strategies to that programs and resilient (Baranowski et al., and the of environmental sustainability is equally environmental is as an tourism initiatives once responsibility are than or For tourism diplomacy to be and environmental sustainability be embedded from the This involves not only the of tourism activities but also initiatives with broader climate and biodiversity goals (Gössling et al., capacity building also as a Many particularly in the the and human resources to in or benefit from tourism diplomacy 2025). in and tourism diplomacy risks than creating a more level strengthening local that all regions can engage (Malis, community and respect for cultural are vital for Tourism diplomacy initiatives that local or heritage the communities they are to communities in and that tourism diplomacy mutual and strengthens local the of tourism diplomacy be inclusive and The involvement of multiple private sector actors, NGOs and communities often to or foster across levels and maintain a long-term and among social and diplomatic (Hall, 2019). through and participatory can tourism diplomacy its potential as a for responsible and sustainable international recent tourism diplomacy has to be an increasingly shaped by change, geopolitical tensions and of sustainability and the growing on responsible tourism provides tourism diplomacy with a When by the responsible tourism tourism diplomacy beyond destination and an to the communities to visitors to and et al., 2020). One is the way that environmental and sustainability are no longer but central to how tourism diplomacy is and and environmental initiatives can stimulate tourism, often with regions (Ramadani et al., 2020). This that diplomacy through tourism to environmental responsibility at all levels, not as of but as to branding, infrastructure and cross-border gaps One is long-term Many programs are but environmental or multiple For instance, while mega-events may an in international their in of community environmental and intergovernmental collaboration often Therefore, can the of more The ability to long-term that and would whether tourism diplomacy to peacebuilding, sustainability and mutual is tourism diplomacy across regions or cultural contexts, for example, Southeast Asia and or differ in their to tourism diplomacy and what might diverse cultures traditions and unique of engagement. of which shape how diplomacy is through tourism. these is for developing than would the of tourism diplomacy and in strategies that with local while fostering global important is the to the the growing role of non-state actors and hybrid forms of diplomacy. civil society groups and private increasingly shape diplomatic narratives and in tourism, often the traditional on and cooperation can on how these actors power, and representation and how they complement or challenge rise of digital diplomacy is area that immersive technologies such as and and digital platforms are central to shaping destination narratives and international For example, a in a tourism in that social a powerful role in the to international during and COVID-19 et al., 2024). The ability of online platforms to shape destination and communities tourism diplomacy be both and how digital are used to of who these narratives and how digital diplomacy can risks of cultural or of especially climate the of tourism diplomacy. tourism's significant to and environmental beyond branding to how diplomatic strategies can support and environmental could how cross-border diplomatic might be mobilized to address shared challenges such as biodiversity and how diplomacy is to foster and tourism as well as build to and crisis are other areas for especially for and border tourism As such, a or is more than and even to look the issues such as development of digital and political for more and on tourism as a diplomatic that
Ting et al. (Mon,) studied this question.