Abstract The dynamics of an electronic wavefunction often have non-trivial consequences on its spatial distribution, for example, during tunnelling or chemical bond formation. Yet, revealing spatio-temporal coupling requires ultrafast videography at the intrinsic size of electronic wavefunctions, at the so-called space-time limit. Here we experimentally access the intrinsic quantum motion of individual electrons at the space-time limit while they are tunnelling through an energy barrier, using atomic-scale lightwave-driven scanning tunnelling microscopy with attosecond time resolution. While modulating the tunnelling barrier with two time-delayed near-infrared pulses forming phase-controlled single-cycle waveforms, isolated electron tunnelling transients shorter than 1 fs are identified. The measured spatial extension depends on the interplay of multi-photon and field-driven dynamics, as confirmed by full quantum simulations. We experimentally localize the attosecond-confined tunnelling wave packet on the angstrom scale and use it to map a single copper adatom on a silver surface. This fusion of attosecond science with atomic-scale scanning tunnelling microscopy makes it possible to study wavefunction dynamics inside atoms, molecules and solids.
Maier et al. (2026) studied this question.