Background Secondary chemistry education faces persistent challenges in conveying abstract molecular concepts. Virtual Reality (VR) and Augmented Reality (AR) technologies have emerged as potential solutions to tackle this issue by offering immersive visualisations and safe experimental environments that bypass traditional instructional limitations. Objectives The present systematic review investigates the adoption of VR and AR in secondary chemistry education from 2014 to 2025. Methods A systematic literature search was performed following the PRISMA guidelines with backward-forward reference searching to ensure comprehensive coverage. In total, twenty-two (N = 22) empirical studies were identified that met the predetermined inclusion criteria and were evaluated using the adapted Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Results Implementation patterns revealed concentration at upper secondary level (14 studies), compared to lower secondary (7 studies), and one study spanned both levels, with applications predominantly addressing molecular structure, chemical bonding, and reaction mechanisms. Head-Mounted Displays and mobile devices constituted the primary hardware platforms, while Unity 3D emerged as the dominant development environment. Practice-based learning activities were most prevalent, frequently combined with guided inquiry and collaborative approaches. Studies documented enhanced conceptual understanding, increased student engagement, and improved spatial reasoning abilities. Implementation barriers persisted including equipment costs, technical infrastructure requirements, and varying digital literacy among educators. Conclusions VR and AR technologies demonstrate potential to address chemistry education challenges. Nevertheless, the field requires longitudinal studies to establish long-term learning impact and standardised assessment protocols in order to enable meaningful cross-intervention comparisons. Future developments should prioritise pedagogically-informed designs to address specific curricular requirements rather than technological capabilities alone.
Christopoulos et al. (Wed,) studied this question.