Abstract The widespread dependence on plastics has led to the persistent accumulation of microplastics (MPs) across terrestrial, aquatic, and atmospheric environments. These microscopic plastic fragments originate from direct release (primary plastics), the degradation of larger plastic materials (secondary plastics), and are now recognized as ubiquitous environmental contaminants. There are substantial uncertainties in the long-term ecological and health impacts of MPs, their major routes in the trophic levels and any cross talks with neighbour contaminants. This review critically examines the current status of MP pollution by outlining their major sources, environmental distribution, and transformation within ecosystem cycles. Special emphasis is given on understanding the interactions of MPs with plants, animals, microorganisms and humans, highlighting their uptake routes, bioaccumulation and potential physiological and ecological consequences. A bibliometric assessment using VOSviewer is also presented to illustrate global research trends and knowledge gaps in this field, based on the Scopus database. The strong evidence presented in this study collectively indicates the percolation of MPs into the ecosystem's natural cycles, thereby posing long-term risks to human health and contaminating ecological trophic levels. Furthermore, this investigation has focused on advancements in existing physical, chemical, and biological mitigation strategies, with a specific focus on environmentally sustainable and cost-effective approaches. Future research must prioritize optimizing sustainable remediation strategies, delving into the mechanistic insights of these methodologies, and developing large-scale mitigation centers to achieve clean environmental goals.
Paul et al. (2026) studied this question.