A Comparative Review on the Major Recourses and Technologies for Lithium Extraction

Abstract Lithium (Li) is the principal component of high-energy-density (rechargeable) batteries. From 2013-2023, Li demand has grown about sixfold and is expected to continuously rise due to the fast-growing global electric vehicle market. As part of this research, acid leaching from rock mining, pond evaporation of salar brines and direct lithium extraction from produced water are assessed as feasible Li extraction technologies. The first two technologies are commercially mature whereas the last one is largely under development. We review three main Li extraction technologies based on the published data and literature to investigate their pros and cons, application range/field and future prospect. Suitable types of source materials (e.g., solid vs. liquid), optimum and minimum required Li concentration levels, overall recovery efficiency, environmental impact, and prospects of future application are summarized and compared for each technology. This overall assessment of different technologies can be utilized to guide future R90%), acid leaching of hard rock still plays a key role in stabilizing the Li supply chain. However, the high carbon footprint and harmful chemicals needed for extraction limit the overall benefit of this method on a long term. Pond evaporation of Li-enriched brines or salars (100s-1000s ppm) recently became a prominent extraction method in the Li supply market. This method is time and water consuming with significant land usage. Extensive Li reserves and a relatively lower carbon footprint make the technology promising for the future, especially if recovery efficiency can be improved. Direct Lithium Extraction (DLE) opens new avenues for utilizing low-Li concentration sources (10s-100s ppm), such as oilfield brines or geothermal water, which have not been considered in the past for being commercially viable. Although most DLE technologies are still in experimentation or pilot stage, these technologies are highly promising due to the estimated low carbon footprint and energy consumption for extraction. We provide a comprehensive review on the three main technologies mentioned, which are currently applied or under development for the extraction of lithium from different source materials. This assessment may be utilized to develop new technologies or improve existing technologies.