What question did this study set out to answer?

This research aims to understand the cytokine profiles in patients with prolonged pandemic-associated chilblains.

February 22, 2026

Immune-Based Cytokine Signatures of Prolonged Pandemic-Associated Chilblains

Key Points

This research aims to understand the cytokine profiles in patients with prolonged pandemic-associated chilblains.
Analyzed peripheral cytokine profiles of 17 patients with prolonged PAC.
Identified elevated levels of specific cytokines such as IFN-γ and IL-16.
Examined differences between acute and prolonged PAC inflammatory responses.
Prolonged PAC showed a type II interferon-skewed inflammatory response.
Patients had indications of T cell activation and endothelial involvement.
Frequent autoimmune comorbidities were noted, suggesting immune dysregulation.

Abstract

Abstract Most pandemic-associated chilblains (PAC) resolve spontaneously, but a subset of patients develops persistent or recurrent disease. We analyzed peripheral cytokine profiles in 17 patients with prolonged PAC and identified elevated IFN-γ, CXCL10, CX3CL1, IL-16, CCL22, and S100A8. In contrast to the transient type I interferon response described in acute PAC, prolonged disease was characterized by a type II interferon–skewed inflammatory signature with T cell activation and endothelial involvement. Frequent autoimmune comorbidities suggest baseline immune dysregulation contributing to chronicity. These findings highlight potential therapeutic targets, including JAK inhibition and IFN-γ–directed therapies.

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