‘Why is publishing so expensive?’

For many of us who work in scientific publishing, the title of this Editorial is a question we hear all the time when we're out talking to academics. And it's a perfectly reasonable one. After all, researchers produce the content, for free, and act as peer reviewers to assess whether it's ‘worthy’ of publication – also for free (in most cases; our sister journal Biology Open being a notable exception: https: //journals. biologists. com/bio/pages/fast-fair). ‘All’ the journal does is put the final version online, so how can that possibly cost US5400 the current Article Processing Charge (APC) for Development? In this Editorial, we (the Editor-in-Chief and Executive Editor of Development and the Publishing Director of The Company of Biologists, our not-for-profit publisher) provide details and context on Development's finances, and hope to dispel some of the myths around the economics of publishing. For those of you who want the take-home message up-front, the two key points we want to make here are firstly that quality editorial assessment and publishing involves a lot of people (meaning our largest costs are staff salaries and, to a lesser extent, Academic Editor stipends), and secondly that publishers have had to invest heavily in technologies to support professional and trustworthy online publishing – there's a lot more to it than just posting an article on a website. But, before we get into the details, here's how a typical conversation with a researcher might go when talk turns to money: You can also publish in Development completely for free; it's just that your article then won't be available to non-subscribers until it is a year old. More broadly, though, while preprint servers are fantastic, they are not journals. Preprints don't incur the same costs because they don't go through the kind of rigorous screening that happens at a journal such as Development – both through peer review and through the technical and integrity checks we perform, which help to ensure that readers can and will trust your work. Not only that, but by publishing in a community-centric journal such as Development, you can maximise the chances of your paper being seen and used by your colleagues. Our post-acceptance processes (outlined in more detail below) will ensure it is in the best possible shape to be read by the community, it will get indexed in PubMed and other services, it will land in people's inboxes and on their social media feeds and, in some cases, it will get featured through a highlight, interview or press release. As discussed below, all these things take time and money and are key services that publishers can provide but preprint servers can't. Professional online publishing isn't as cheap as it might initially seem. In the context of all our costs (detailed below), the actual process of printing (which Development only stopped at the end of 2024) was a very minor outgoing. And given that over 25% of full-text views to Development articles are to the PDF version rather than the HTML, it's clear that readers still want to read in PDF format, meaning we still need to typeset each article. Not only that, but we, in collaboration with our online hosting partners Silverchair, need to make sure that articles are preserved in perpetuity, meet modern accessibility requirements and that the online reading experience provides the kind of functionality that readers expect. It may not all be visible, but a lot of work goes into maintaining and improving the website. Firstly, none of The Company of Biologists' journals have page charges, although some journals at other publishers still do. But article length is still relevant – we are charged for typesetting by the page, and a longer paper typically takes longer (and therefore costs more) to copyedit and proofread. That said, the reason we believe length limits still have a place is not because of cost but rather because we want to encourage conciseness for the reader's benefit. APCs at well-established journals like Development can vary from a few hundred dollars to over 10, 000. There are many reasons for this variability, ranging from the economic model of the publisher (for-profit versus not-for-profit) and the scale of the operation through to the staffing model of the journal (professional versus academic editors; in-house versus outsourced production processes). One factor that's often under-appreciated is the selectivity of the journal, i. e. what percentage of papers received are eventually published. An Open Access (OA) journal that publishes the majority of its submissions receives income for most of the time and money expended in assessing those manuscripts. By contrast, a highly selective journal spends a lot of time processing papers that won't get accepted and therefore bring in no money. Many publishers have tried to get around this problem by providing trickle-down cascades to keep papers (and the income they represent) within the same publishing house, but at an individual journal level, the more selective you are, the more you have to charge to recoup your costs. Of course, you can argue about the value of such selectivity, but that's a whole separate conversation…In years gone by, the traditional subscription-based publishing model typically provided healthy revenues for publishers big and small. For The Company of Biologists (which publishes four journals in addition to Development: Journal of Experimental Biology, Journal of Cell Science, Disease Models see https: //www. biologists. com/library-hub/read-publish/) and direct APC payments. As libraries increasingly move from a traditional subscription to an R&P agreement, this has become our main source of income, reducing the need for authors to pay APCs and enabling the majority of the journal's content to be made available OA at the point of publication. It's important to note here that we have been careful in setting our subscription pricing to avoid so-called ‘double-dipping’ – charging libraries for access to OA content for which we have received income through other routes. Fig. 1 shows the proportion of papers published in 2025 through each of the options available to authors. While income from APCs represents only a small proportion of our revenue, the APC feeds into our R&P pricing. Our aim is therefore to set the APC at a level that begins to cover our costs per article, allowing us to continue to function as traditional subscription income declines. It is important to note that as a small, not-for-profit publisher of only five journals, we do not benefit from any of the economies of scale that can be achieved by larger organisations. We publish our journals ourselves (rather than partnering with a larger publisher, as many society and non-profit journals do) because this gives us full control of how we operate and the quality of our product. These are significant benefits to going it alone, but the financial challenges are exacerbated by not being part of a large stable of journals with common resources and opportunities for collaboration. Our biggest direct cost area is in salaries and stipends (Fig. 2). The Development in-house team consists of eight people (7. 2 full-time equivalents): the Executive Editor, two Reviews Editors, three Production Editors, three Editorial Administrators (who also work on other journals) and the Node's Community Manager (who also supports the journal as its Online Editor). Producing the journal also requires work from our Technical Operations department, including graphics and proofreading teams. Without these committed staff members, manuscripts wouldn't move through the assessment and peer review process, accepted papers wouldn't get copyedited (checked and corrected for accuracy, clarity and compliance with key journal policies) or scrutinised in-house for integrity issues and there would be no review-type articles in the journal. In short, Development just wouldn't get published. Equally important are our team of Academic Editors, who are modestly compensated for their time and dedication to the journal – reading submissions, selecting peer reviewers, making decisions on which articles to publish, supporting authors through the publication process and contributing to the overall strategic directions of the journal. It's all very well producing a journal and papers to go in it, but we also need to make sure that people can find and read them, and this is where our Sales and Marketing department comes in. As mentioned earlier, The Company of Biologists has been very successful in growing its OA content through R&P agreements, but this has required significant investment in our Sales team. Meanwhile, we rely on our Marketing staff to help us promote the journal and its papers, to reach new readers and authors and to gather feedback on what we do well and where we can improve. Finally, of course, there are all the general expenses and overheads – like any organisation, we need to manage and develop the business and its people, we need finance and HR support, and we need to keep the lights on and the laptops running. As well as our people and facilities, we are also reliant on a host of technology partners and platforms – from our manuscript submission system to our typesetting service provider to our online hosting platform. And it's not enough just to put up a PDF: as noted above, we need to keep on top of emerging standards and evolving expectations from readers and librarians, providing, amongst other things, fully accessible XML, play-in-place movies, archiving, indexing and appropriate linking to relevant databases. Increasingly, we have also had to invest in software solutions and staff time to detect and address publication integrity issues, including plagiarism, inappropriate image manipulation and papermill submissions. The age of AI will only exacerbate these issues. Publishing, done well, is an expensive business. For every paper you read in Development, at least five different in-house staff – an Editorial Administrator, the Executive Editor, a member of our graphics team, a Production Editor and a member of our proofreading team – have been involved in its journey from submission to publication, as have at least one Academic Editor, two or three peer reviewers and the (outsourced) typesetting team. And, across the whole organisation, we employ 62 full- or part-time staff whose roles support our publishing operations (not counting those solely dedicated to our charitable activities). We are proud to be a people-centric organisation, and while we're actively assessing options to streamline processes and reduce costs, the quality you expect from Development will continue to be at the forefront of our thinking.