Self-X-based secure human-cyber-physical system (SSHCPS) for autonomous manufacturing in the era of industry 5.0

The transition from Industry 4.0 to Industry 5.0 marks a paradigm shift from technology-driven automation toward secure, resilient, and human-centric manufacturing. While Industry 4.0 enhanced efficiency through cyber-physical systems (CPS), the Internet of Things (IoT), and artificial intelligence (AI), it often overlooks human involvement and introduces heightened cybersecurity risks. Industry 5.0 seeks to overcome these limitations by emphasizing sustainability, resilience, and human-centricity through collaboration between humans and intelligent systems. As a step toward maturing the Industry 5.0 paradigm, we propose the Self-X-based secure human-cyber-physical system (SSHCPS) as a new conceptual framework for autonomous manufacturing. This study introduces an original architecture that integrates Self-X capabilities, human-in-the-loop (HITL) interaction, and cybersecurity (CS). The architecture is structured into four interlinked modules: HITL, Digital Twin, Physical Twin, and CS. As the foundation of this architecture, we categorized the Self-X terms from the literature, merged them into 23 Self-X principles, redefined them, and mapped them into the core values of Industry 5.0 and the SSHCPS modules. Furthermore, we demonstrate the applicability of SSHCPS through potential applications such as lightless and de-urbanized factories, humanoid-enabled SMEs, and the aerospace industry, while also identifying key technical challenges and future direction. This study establishes SSHCPS as a forward-looking foundation for secure, efficient, and human-centered autonomous manufacturing systems in the Industry 5.0 era.