Abstract: Inner Asia, home to diverse non-Han peoples, was governed as several dependencies by the Qing Empire. In response to foreign encroachments beginning in the late nineteenth century, Han officials prioritized borderland defense and advocated for province building in these regions to safeguard Qing territorial integrity. Following the establishment of the Republic of China in 1912, frontier warlords adopted this strategy and affirmed their commitment to national sovereignty. Although they promoted Chinese territorial administration as the foundation for borderland defense, no new provinces were created until 1928. This article uses Qinghai as a case study to explore the way in which borderland defense served as a justification for the disparate goals of frontier warlords, provincial officials, and national leaders. By highlighting the operationalization of borderland defense within Republican politics, the article argues that domestic power struggles contributed to the creation of Qinghai, Ningxia, Rehe, Chaha’er, and Suiyuan Provinces, reinforcing China’s sovereignty in Inner Asia.
Gyatso Marnyi (2025) studied this question.