Abstract The Islamic world, with over 1.9 billion Muslims, spans the Middle East, Central Asia, North Africa, and Southeast Asia, forming a civilization rooted in the Quran. In the 20th century, many Muslim-majority nations gained independence from European colonial rule, with key events like the fall of the Ottoman Caliphate (1921) and the occupation of Palestine (1948) shaping its modern history. The Iranian Islamic Revolution (1979) remains a pivotal moment in Islamic political movements. Islamic culture has significantly influenced art, literature, and science, producing Nobel laureates and renowned artists. However, challenges such as political instability, historical misrepresentation, and Islamophobia persist. The migration of Muslims to the West has facilitated cultural exchange but also sparked socio-political tensions, especially after the September 11 attacks. Islamism, advocating the integration of Islamic principles into governance, has played a crucial role in shaping perceptions of Islam. While it ranges from political participation to radical extremism, its militant factions have been used by global powers to fuel Islamophobia. Western narratives often conflate Islamism with Islam, reinforcing stereotypes of extremism and violence. This paper examines how Islamist movements, media portrayals, and geopolitical strategies have contributed to rising Islamophobia. By analyzing historical events and the manipulation of Islamic fundamentalism, it highlights how Islamism has both shaped and been shaped by Islamophobic discourse. The study also explores the impact of Islamophobia on Muslim communities and suggests strategies to counter misinformation, promote interfaith dialogue, and present an authentic image of Islam.
Gupta et al. (2025) studied this question.