The 2024 European Parliament (EP) elections (EP24) were regarded as a “testing ground” for artificial intelligence (AI)-powered disinformation threats. Instances of multimodal, AI-generated disinformation were found across European democracies, leading to questions about just how prevalent this threat may be in the eyes of citizens poised to vote in the EP elections, and its influence on electoral processes. Utilizing a three-wave panel approach, we surveyed a sample of citizens in the Netherlands, Germany, and Poland ( N = 2929) to track changes over the course of the election cycle. We explored the association between citizens’ concerns about and perceived encounters with AI-generated content, including disinformation. We were also interested in how these concerns and perceived encounters differ over the course of the campaign, differ by country, and ultimately, how they relate to citizens’ perceptions of the fairness of the electoral process. We found that increased reported exposure to AI-generated election content, including disinformation, is associated with heightened concern about AI’s threat to democratic integrity in the EP24. While reported exposure to AI-generated content positively influenced perceptions of electoral integrity and democratic satisfaction at the EU-level, disinformation eroded these perceptions, albeit modestly. Reported exposure to AI-generated disinformation peaked just before elections, suggesting strategic timing. Understanding citizens’ perspectives can be crucial for the development of a robust, democratic and resilient information ecosystem—particularly during elections.
Farooq et al. (2025) studied this question.