Citizenship in the New Testament

This paper examines the historical evolution and complexities of citizenship in the ancient Mediterranean world, with a particular focus on the experiences of migrants and minority groups such as the Jews. It explores the exclusive nature of Greek citizenship, which was limited to free-born males and perpetuated by local elites, and contrasts this with the more expansive but still hierarchical Roman model, where citizenship could be acquired through military service, manumission, or imperial grant. The study analyses the dual and often precarious status of Jewish communities in diaspora cities like Alexandria, highlighting their social and legal marginalisation despite long-term residence. Through case studies—including the failed attempt to Hellenise Jerusalem and the violent pogrom in Alexandria—the paper underscores how citizenship functioned as both a mechanism of inclusion and exclusion. The discussion situates these ancient debates within broader theological and philosophical reflections, revealing enduring tensions between identity, belonging, and political rights. Keywords: (heavenly) Citizenship, Roman Empire, God's kingdom, Judaism, (apostle) Paul, Migration