Purpose This paper aims to identify and analyse how the OECD incorporated low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) into the PISA framework and managed the differences between the PISA-D participating countries and those engaged in PISA. Design/methodology/approach To understand the processes, we draw on the concepts of Hardt and Negri (2001), in particular the three moments of the general apparatus of Empire, which they term the “inclusive”, the “differential” and the “managerial”. Findings We identify that these inter-connected moments of Empire shine through the OECD expansionist agenda. The most significant developments are the continued extension of PISA to more LMICs (the inclusive moment), the promotion of peer learning from “experienced” to “new” participants (the differentiated moment) and very strong signals about hierarchy and control, with some elements not being “offered” to new partners, and an emphasis on technical expertise and the governance of national project managers (the managerial moment). Originality/value This paper is original in presenting the case that the OECD is on its passage to the Empire. It contributes to the literature by offering insights into how the OECD maintains control over the development of a larger PISA programme into which most countries can be subsumed.
Li et al. (2025) studied this question.