Abstract This paper explores the critical role of pre-existing social networks in determining the organizational integration or fragmentation of armed groups, with a particular focus on sub-Saharan Africa. Ethnic networks and structures have historically shaped conflicts in this region, such as the civil wars in Burundi and Nigeria. Although some contemporary armed groups, especially religious extremists in Somalia, Nigeria, and Mali, claim to transcend ethnic identities, maintaining cohesion in ethnically heterogeneous groups remains challenging. Effective socialization of combatants is essential for ensuring homogeneity and commitment, as individuals possess multiple overlapping social and political identities. Implementing socialization methods, such as ideological education, helps unify members and maintain organizational coherence despite diverse backgrounds. However, these efforts often face barriers, and ethnicity can remain a dominant factor. Through interviews with Boko Haram ex-combatants in Northern Nigeria (2019–2023), this study examines when, why, and how ethnicity becomes foregrounded within armed groups, overriding intended supra-identities. The findings reveal that unit leaders’ pathways to leadership and their socialization into Boko Haram are primary determinants of ethnic foregrounding. Leaders promoted without full socialization are more likely to retain ethnic sentiments and exhibit bias toward co-ethnics, influencing reward, punishment, and military operations.
Makena N Micheni (2025) studied this question.