Germanium Thermophotovoltaic Devices Achieving 7.3% Efficiency Under High-Temperature Emission by Empirical Calorimetry

We report the first empirical efficiency measurement of germanium-based thermophotovoltaic devices under high-temperature, high-irradiance conditions using a high view-factor calorimetric setup. Two TPV cell architectures were fabricated on p-type, highly doped (10¹⁷ cm⁻³) Ge substrates, differing only in rear contact configuration. A standard device with a gold rear contact achieves a peak efficiency of 7.3 % and a power density of 1.77 W cm⁻² at an emitter temperature of 1480 °C, while a PERC-type device reaches 6.3 % efficiency and 1.22 W cm⁻² at 1426 °C. The superior performance of the standard device is attributed to lower series resistance, whereas the PERC design exhibits slightly higher efficiency at lower emitter temperatures (4.0 % vs. 3.8 % at 1150 °C) due to enhanced rear-surface reflectivity. A detailed TPV model has been developed and validated across both device architectures. The model identifies out-of-band optical losses as the dominant efficiency-limiting mechanism, primarily caused by strong free-carrier absorption in the highly doped Ge substrate. Using this model, we predict device performance under idealized spectral conditions commonly assumed in prior literature. For a simulated AlN/W spectrally selective emitter, efficiencies as high as 22.3 % at 1800 °C are obtained, consistent with previous semi-empirical predictions. In contrast, when previously reported Ge devices are modeled under the realistic graphite emitter spectrum used here, projected efficiencies decrease to as low as 8.1 % at 1480 °C. These results show that earlier projections remain valid but idealized and underscore the importance of emitter spectral engineering and substrate optimization. Finally, we present the first direct comparison of Ge and InGaAs TPV devices under identical conditions, demonstrating the superior performance of InGaAs while confirming the cost-driven competitiveness of Ge.