Abstract This study addresses the effects of uneven temperature distribution on the performance of photovoltaic (PV) modules in series, parallel, series-parallel, and parallel-series electrical configurations. This comprehensive and extensive work presents a new mathematical approach that models thermal gradients caused on by environmental or structural factors. In comparison to pure series or parallel connections, the results indicate that hybrid configurations, in particular, series-parallel and parallel-series, show a higher tolerance to temperature mismatches. In large-scale PV installations, where perfect thermal uniformity is uncommon, the results emphasize the significance of thermal management and configuration selection in reducing power loss from localized heating. Experimenatl validation is carried out showing a good agrremeent with the current simulation model.
Fazaa et al. (2026) studied this question.