Failure mechanism of unsaturated sandstone under freeze-thaw cycles: Critical saturation effect and segmented damage modeling

Key Points

• Failure mechanisms were assessed under varying freeze-thaw cycles, affecting unsaturated sandstone integrity.
• Critical saturation levels changed the damage patterns observed, showing significant effects during the tests.
• Observational analysis evaluated damage modeling across multiple freeze-thaw cycles over a set duration.
• The findings highlight necessary considerations for engineering applications in cold climates.