A dual-scale damage model for freezing–thaw degradation in cement-based materials under thermo-hydro-mechanical coupling

Key Points

• Degradation in cement-based materials was significantly affected by freezing-thawing cycles and hydro-mechanical factors.
• The dual-scale damage model incorporated both micro and macro damage mechanisms to accurately predict material performance.
• Thermo-hydro-mechanical coupling analysis showed that environmental conditions critically influence the material's durability.
• The implications of this model may enhance the understanding of material behavior in various climate conditions.