Sharks and rays (subclass Elasmobranchii) are cartilaginous fishes belonging to the class Chondrichthyes and are distinguished by skeletons composed primarily of unmineralized cartilage. These species play critical ecological roles as apex and mesopredators in marine ecosystems, contributing to trophic balance and ecosystem stability. However, global populations of sharks and rays have experienced substantial declines over recent decades, primarily due to intense fishing pressure and international trade. Studies indicate that tens of millions of individuals are harvested annually, with peak exploitation recorded in the early 2000s. Such large-scale extraction has significantly reduced population sizes worldwide, and approximately one-quarter of elasmobranch species are now considered threatened with extinction. The vulnerability of sharks and rays to overexploitation is strongly linked to their life-history characteristics, including slow growth rates, delayed sexual maturity, low fecundity, and extended gestation periods. These biological traits limit their capacity for rapid population recovery once depleted. Consequently, continued overfishing poses severe risks to their long-term sustainability and to the health of marine ecosystems that depend on their ecological functions. This study synthesizes existing knowledge on the biological characteristics and conservation challenges facing sharks and rays, highlighting the urgent need for improved management strategies, sustainable fisheries practices, and strengthened conservation measures. Enhanced monitoring, science-based policy implementation, and international cooperation are essential to mitigate further declines and promote recovery of elasmobranch populations globally.
Saputra et al. (2025) studied this question.