Hourly concentrations of PM2.5-bound elements were continuously monitored in Windsor, Canada, from April 2021 to April 2023. Health risk assessment methods of the USEPA were utilized to quantify lifetime cumulative cancer risks (CRs) using six PM2.5-bound elements, and chronic non-cancer hazard quotients (HQs) using 11 elements, for each season, each source factor, and each hour of day. The two-year average PM2.5 mass concentration was 9.2 μg/m3, slightly exceeding Ontario’s Ambient Air Quality Criteria of 8.8 μg/m3. A discernible diurnal concentration pattern was noted for most elements, peaking during morning rush hours and tapering during the daytime, largely attributed to local human activities and changes in atmospheric mixing heights. Despite this, both the total lifetime cumulative CR (4.1 × 10−5) and non-cancer total HQ (0.82) from exposure to ambient elements remained below the corresponding USEPA-acceptable levels. The seasonal variation in CRs and HQs was minimal. However, the diurnal variation was strong, with higher risks during morning rush hours (6:00–8:00) when traffic volume peaks, and lower risks during the daytime (12:00–20:00) when atmospheric mixing height is enhanced. Metal processing emerged as the most significant contributor to the total CR (52%) and HQ (60%), followed by coal/heavy oil burning (19% and 16%, respectively), and vehicular exhaust (19% and 12%, respectively). The remaining two source factors accounted for 10% of CR and 12% of HQ. Cd (62%) was the largest contributor to CRs, followed by Cr(VI) (25%), Co (6%), As (5%), Ni (2%), and Pb (<0.1%). Similarly, Cd dominated HQs (73%), followed by Mn (11%), Ni (6.3%), with the remaining eight elements collectively contributing 9.7%. Although levels of CRs and HQs are low, efforts to mitigate ambient Cd emissions from metal processing sources will help reduce exposure and protect the environment and human health, given Cd is the primary contributor to the total CR and HQ during the study period.
Zhang et al. (2026) studied this question.