Robert Hart, the Anglo-Irish Inspector General of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Services, is largely known for introducing the last imperial rulers of China, the Great Qing, to Western structures and ideas during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This article argues that, over the course of this period, as Qing provincial governors – who nonetheless supported reforms along Western lines – strengthened their influence over foreign policy, Hart's approach was guided less by principle and more by his struggle to retain decision-making authority in Beijing, where his loyalties lay and his influence was strongest. This dynamic became particularly evident in the growing divergence between central and provincial authorities over matters concerning China's territorial integrity and claims, as the empire's vast mainland and borderlands were continually exposed to foreign threats during the final decades of Qing rule. The argument is demonstrated through two case studies: Sino-British discussions before the 1886 annexation of Burma and internal debates two decades later on land tax reforms aimed at centralising Qing authority.
Yorgos Moraitis (2026) studied this question.