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) and welding speeds (20, 30, and 40 cm/min), on the columnar grain, porosity, and defect types were systematically analyzed. The formed specimens were then subjected to nonlinear ultrasonic testing, and the results showed that the ultrasonic nonlinear parameters exhibited high sensitivity to changes in porosity. This suggests that nonlinear ultrasonic testing can effectively assess processing defects in WAAM 316L stainless steel. The findings provide valuable insights for optimizing the WAAM process and improving the reliability of additive manufacturing components.
Wang et al. (2025) studied this question.