Multimedia learning environments require learners to process and integrate information across visual and auditory modalities, often under conditions of limited cognitive capacity. In this study, we examined how visual load (defined as the number of images accompanying audio narration) and individual differences in language proficiency, sustained attention, and working memory influence learning outcomes in international university students. In two experiments (N = 61, M = 21.2 years), we examined how different visual loads affected memory recall. In Experiment 1, participants viewed narrated slides that included varying numbers of images, specifically from 0 to 3 images, and then completed an immediate recall task. In Experiment 2, we compared recall performance for audio-only vs. audio-and-picture information across two visual load conditions (1 vs. 3 images). Results showed that increasing visual support enhanced the learning of audio-and-picture information but had no benefit for audio-only content. Additionally, lower English proficiency and reduced attention were associated with poorer recall, especially under higher visual load. These findings support cognitive load theory and highlight how individual cognitive and language abilities can limit effective multimedia learning. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to the design of digital instructional materials tailored for diverse learner populations.
Bali et al. (2026) studied this question.