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Abstract The changing careers of research scientists under the influence of contemporary pressures are examined, drawing on original case-study research covering four settings: higher education institutions, industrial R&D, government research laboratories, and research institutes. Moving away from the traditional linear model of career progression, a dynamic model of career states is introduced. This acknowledges that investment of individual and organisational energy in careers will ebb and flow under the influence of a range of contextual and personal variables. It is proposed that the career states system model can be used as an aid to careers guidance for both men and women. Some of the issues to which scientists must be alert in order to manage their careers effectively are addressed
Valmai Bowden (1997) studied this question.